Dr. Rahalkar's thoughts...

FAITHS AND BELIEFS:-

It has been a long long time, since I have been pondering over the thought of introducing myself to the variety of faiths and beliefs, which have existed since millennia.
Indeed, it has been my firm belief that if one needs to ‘respect’ something, he/she must ‘know’ it well primarily. That theorem applies most to Faiths and Religions in particular, since we have been bombarded, day in and day out, over the word ‘secular’ or ‘secularism’, a term very loosely and inappropriately used, particularly in our own country, that is Bharat.
Being obsessed with the idea, I used to spend quite a lot of time browsing through various reference books, sometimes too big for me even to lift!
Naturally, the contents therein were too voluminous and very much beyond my ken.
Then suddenly I came across a very tiny book, from the ‘teach yourself’ series, authored by one Dr. Paul Oliver. I have no hesitation to declare that I have handpicked much of whatever follows now!
One of the characteristic features of human existence appears to be a spiritual way of life. This may manifest itself in terms of being a member of one of the major world faiths or it may simply be that a person feels vaguely that there is ‘more to life’ than merely acquiring material possessions and meeting the physical requirements of existence.
Where people are members of a major faith, then there are often certain expectations of the way in which they will behave. We perhaps assume that they will ‘read’ certain religious texts; that they may pray to a deity or deities; that they will participate in certain religious rituals; that they will attend certain ceremonies at a place devoted to communal worship; and that they may subscribe to a particular code of ethical conduct.
For the same reason, those individuals who do not belong to a mainstream religious tradition may still have strong religious or spiritual feelings. In short, many people experience a spiritual dimension to life, whether or not they are part of an organised faith. This spiritual dimension contrasts with the ‘secular’ approach to life, which is characterised in a typical sense by a pre-occupation with the material things of life and satisfying the physical requirements of sustaining life.
Truly speaking, there is hardly any distinction or dividing line between ‘spiritual’ and ‘secular’. Listening to music, for example, may on one level be purely about physical enjoyment and appear to have no relationship to spiritual life. Contrariwise, someone who listens to music and enjoys it, may experience a lifting of the spirit and an enhanced feeling about life very close to a spiritual experience, which we might term as ‘religious’.
When we consider societies in which there is a blend of the secular and the spiritual, it becomes far less easy to define clearly, what we mean by the ‘religious’. Certainly, considering the range of world faiths, it is evident that there are enormous variations in patterns of belief and worship.

In ‘Shinto’, the indigenous religion of Japan, there was originally no separate ‘name’ for Shinto, the reason being that Shinto was so much a part of an everyday life, that there was no reason to distinguish a religious life from a secular life. The entire world including trees, mountains, rivers and as part of family ancestors, was a spiritual, religious world.
There are faiths that have no deity to which people pray or carry out devotions. Perhaps the largest religion, which comes into this category, is Buddhism. To the ‘un-initiated’, Buddhists may ‘appear’ to be worshipping the Buddha; and although appearances may be to the contrary, there is no sense in which ‘Buddha’ is worshipped as a deity. The Buddha is seen as a spiritually enlightened human being whose teaching is capable, if followed diligently, of helping human beings to reduce the suffering inherent in their lives. A Buddhist would NOT, for example, pray for a miracle or for Divine intervention in some form. The Buddhist would reflect upon the teachings of the Buddha, perhaps using the statue (of the Buddha) as a form of inspiration, for what was, in fact, possible in life. Neither the Buddha image nor the historical Buddha himself is seen as any kind of deity. They are merely a reminder of the spiritual attainments of one human being and the way in which today Buddhists may utilise those achievements to improve the quality of their lives.
This is, of course, very different from the situation in Christianity, where Christians may pray to Jesus Christ, asking Him to intervene in the world to help them. Buddhists are entirely dependent upon their own efforts to help bring about a change in the world or to reduce their own suffering. However, Christians would see the possibility that through Faith in God, He would be able, in principle, to intervene and help them in their lives, beside their own efforts.

Christianity shares a clearly Monotheistic world view with Islam, Judaism, and Sikhism, among others. They subscribe to the view that there is a single deity.

Some other faiths, such as ‘Taoism, appear not to subscribe to the view that a deity as such exists, but rather that there is a spiritual force influencing the universe.

In other religious systems such as Confucianism, the relationship between the Confucian worldview, and the existence or otherwise of a deity is perhaps slightly less than clear.

Thus, there are faiths that are clearly monotheistic in terms of belief in a single, all-powerful God and there are other faiths, which appear not to subscribe to the existence of a deity as such. There are also, however, faiths that appear to combine some elements of both of these positions, having both personal deities to which the individual person may make approaches and the rather impersonal universal spirit, which has a unifying influence over the whole of existence.

‘Hinduism’ is perhaps an example of this position. There are many individual deities in Hinduism, so much so that a newcomer to the study of the faith may be rather bewildered at the multiplicity of images of deities found in that religion. Among the more common deities are Krishna, Shiva, Saraswati and Ganesha, the elephant god. An individual deity is often associated with a particular dimension of life and prayers are unto that god or goddess at appropriate times. The important feature of this approach to deities is that it permeates many facets of life, producing a blurring of the distinction between the religious and the secular.
Although one can view these gods and goddesses as being imminent and very close to the day-to-day lives of people, one can also see them as manifestations of a more general religious force. The Universal Spirit or Brahmam of the Upanishads is the Spiritual Force, which influences the entire living and inanimate world. All of the imminent, personal gods are a part of such a universal spirit.
On this rather more philosophical plane, the Absolute becomes a Divine Element in everyone. It may well be true that many people in their daily lives are not in a state of regular reflection on Brahmam, but the more personal deities of Hinduism offer a straightforward approach to religious experience, which is available in daily life.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN WORLD FAITHS:-

It is relatively easy to find differences between world faiths, and indeed, such differences are so numerous, that such an analysis could proceed for a long time. It is probably a more complex task to look for similarities between religions or at least for those shared themes that characterise the spiritual life.
Religions generally appear to address the possibility of an existence beyond the present, earthly life span of a human being. In Christianity, for example, there is the clear promise of a ‘life after death’. For the Christian who has faith in God and makes a sincere attempt to live life according to the example and precepts of Jesus Christ, there is the promise of Eternal Life, close to God the Father in Heaven.
In Hinduism and Jainism, the prospect of an existence in a spiritual realm after the earthly existence links to concepts of Karma, Reincarnation and the doctrine of the Cycle of birth, death and re-birth. The assumption of Karma is that the deeds of an individual accrue certain consequences, which have to be lived through, in future existences, until all the consequences eliminate. Only then can the individual achieve release from the cycle of re-incarnation.
In Jainism, the main method of eliminating the results of Karma is to live an ascetic life.
Buddhism offers a rather different analysis of this issue; the nature of existence after a physical death as well as the ‘spiritual path’ along which the individual should travel, in order to achieve a new spiritual existence after death.
It certainly acknowledges the validity of the question, since it is on record that the Buddha in his lifetime had to face this question by one of his disciples. He chose not to respond directly to the question of the nature of an ‘afterlife’. His answer was that the question itself is unimportant. His argument was that the only truly important issue was the manner in which we ‘live our present lives’. This should be our total preoccupation. In other words, human beings should devote themselves to the system of ‘mental training’ set out by Buddha, in order to ‘reduce suffering’ in their lives.
The principle of ‘mindfulness’ enunciated by Buddha exhorts people to concentrate on life in ‘the present’ and to live each moment in a sensitive and careful manner.

One might perhaps summarise the Buddhist view by saying that the ‘only reality is the present’.

Religion also shares much in common with philosophy and their questions are fairly similar; for instance, the nature of ‘reality’. In philosophical terms, it becomes an ontological question. If it is applied to spiritual matters, it raises such issues as whether the material, day-to-day world is compatible with the ‘religious’ life or whether ‘spirituality’ may only be found in some ‘otherworldly’ existence which is distinct from the ordinary daily life of, for example, earning a living and raising a family. This very much concerns with questions of religious lifestyles.
Some people may argue, for example, that the religious life should really be lived ‘in the world’ as part of ordinary, daily existence, while others may suggest that the truly religious life is one of contemplation and withdrawal from the world.
The responses to this important question are different in separate religious traditions, but it is an issue, which emerges in all faiths.
In the Sikh religion, for example, there has always been an emphasis upon the importance of ‘integrating’ the spiritual life with day-to-day living. This was always emphasised by Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion. In his later years at Kartarpur, he continued to earn his living as a farmer, as if to stress the significance of the importance of daily labour. In addition, at one point, in the early history of Sikhism, the Sikhs would not accept converts to the faith from Sadhus and Sanyasins who were leading a life dependent upon alms given by others.

‘Confucianism’ was very much an ‘ethical’ approach to the practical questions of daily life, so much so that after the death of Confucius, his approach was gradually adopted by the political and administrative systems in China.

Some traditions such as ‘Zen Buddhism’, which are sometimes considered as withdrawing from the world, also have a practical element in their practice.

‘Judaism’ is also very much a life-affirming tradition. Judaism emphasises family life and indeed many of the traditions of Judaism are much centred on the family as they are at the synagogue.

Some faiths, or at least traditions within those faiths, view the ‘material world’ as fundamentally unsatisfactory in a ‘spiritual’ sense and consider that the most appropriate means of ‘religious’ expression is ‘to withdraw’ from the world in some way.
There is a long ‘monastic’ tradition within Christianity.
The contemplative life is certainly found within the ‘Sufi’ tradition in ‘Islam’, and also within ‘Taoism’ in China.
Perhaps, however, it is within ‘Hinduism’ and ‘Buddhism’ that one finds the clearest examples of ‘withdrawal from the world’.

The ideal of the religious ‘recluse’ occurs in many different contexts in Hinduism. The general theme is of the person who retires from the cares of the world, living in an isolated location, leading a life dedicated to meditation and contemplation. This is usually accompanied by a very simple lifestyle, perhaps living on food alms given by disciples. The ‘Guru’ or teacher may have one or two disciples who are trained in Yoga and the Scriptures by the Guru and who later assume an independent, similar way of life (the Guru-Shishya Parampara).
The discipline of Yoga and Meditation may also be accompanied by the practice of various austerities. These might include sitting or standing in various difficult postures for long periods of time (sometimes for periods of years); submitting to being buried for periods of time; and perhaps also the self-denial of food and water for periods. Such austerities are claimed to help with attaining spiritual insights.

Lifestyles of this type are to varying degrees described and advocated in scriptures such as the Bhagvad Geeta and the Upanishads. The mendicant lifestyle is also regarded as part of the ideal type of Hindu life stages or ‘Ashramas’.
The basic stages of the idealised Hindu life conclude with the person withdrawing from family life and living a ‘reclusive’ life in the forest, finally leaving to become a wandering ‘Sadhu’.

Similarly, in Theravada Buddhism, the monks and nuns lead a fairly austere lifestyle. Ordained monks and nuns have only a very few basic possessions such as a robe and a bowl in which they can collect food alms. They are not supposed to handle money and hence do not have the means simply to go out and satisfy any need that makes itself felt. They are trained to adjust to whatever is available and to accept life the way it is.
Besides, in working around the monastery, they are encouraged to do whatever work is required, rather than seeking out a particular work, which they find fulfilling or pleasurable.
In other words, they are not encouraged to try to mould the external world, rather, to accept the world as it is.

Another fundamentally religious question, which the different faiths attempt to answer, is ‘the nature of the ultimate power’ and ‘authority’ in the universe.
The religions that have all developed just to the east of Mediterranean, that is, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, all possess the concept of a single, all-powerful god, who created the universe, as we know it. Likewise, Sikhism has the concept of a single god.

Buddhism has no concept of a divinity. It has really no sense of the metaphysical, and concentrates very much on the psychology of the individual person attempting to respond to the challenges of an ‘imperfect world’.

Some faiths, such as Taoism and Shinto, conceptualise the universe as being under the influence of a ‘spiritual force’ which in Taoism is known as Tao and which in the Shinto would probably be seen as the spiritual source of the ‘kami’ or ‘multiplicity of spirits’ which exist in the world.

One might also include in this broad perspective the ‘Brahman’ of the Upanishads in Hinduism.


ETHICS AND WORLD FAITHS:-

Another important question, which appears as a part of ‘religious’ framework is that, ‘how human beings ought to live their lives’. These are fundamentally Ethical Questions.
The main religions have generally set out to delineate certain ways of acting as acceptable and moral, and others as being unacceptable.
Some religions have fairly strict ethical teachings, and in ‘Judaism’ for example, the ‘Torah’ contains over 600 requirements with which the Jews are supposed to comply.
In Islam, there are requirements such as ‘Zakat’, which means that Muslims should give to charitable causes what amounts to two and a half per cent of their annual income and possessions.

The customs within ‘Jainism,’ are connected with a ‘non-violence’ perspective. And such customs include the filtering of drinking water and the wearing of a gauze over the mouth to prevent killing of small insects and creatures, and so on.

In some other religions, however, ethical thought may be regarded as more ‘relativistic’. In Hinduism, for example, one may point to the apparently strict requirements of ‘Caste membership’ as evidence of very clearly defined ethical rules.
To that extent, the ‘social structure’ of Hinduism may reflect a degree of ethical absolutism.
And yet, in the Bhagavat Geeta, one of the most widely read Hindu Scriptures and beloved of Mahatma Gandhi, there is arguably a slightly more flexible approach to ethics.
The book opens with a battle scene, which may well be regarded as a metaphor for the moral dilemmas of life. Arjuna, a Hindu prince, is in his chariot on one side of the battlefield, facing the opposite armies, in which he can see personal friends, relatives and even preceptors, his Gurus. He does not wish to fight anymore, since a sudden upsurge of possessiveness and attachment springs up, looking at his kith and kin.
This is the scene, which is set for Arjuna’s Charioteer who is none other than the Lord Sri Krishna Himself, to reflect on the dilemmas, which confront human beings.
The remainder of the Bhagavat Geeta is an opportunity for Krishna to expound His philosophy of the way in which human beings should act in the world and can be seen, in effect, as a treatise on Hindu Ethics.
Sri Krishna’s argument is that there is nothing intrinsically wrong with ‘action’ or with work (Karma), but it is the ‘motive’, which is important. It is essential, according to Krishna, that people do not have any expectations from their actions. More particularly, they should not have any selfish aspirations from their actions. They should not act in a particular way, simply to hope for a particular reward.
On the contrary, their entire actions should be dedicated to God. One of the key principles here is that of ‘non-attachment’. The True Yogi, according to the Geeta is unattached to the fruits of his or her actions. Krishna argues that the pursuits of pleasures does not lead to happiness, because the pleasures generated by the material, physical world are impermanent. Only the pleasure and peace of mind, which arises through unattached action dedicated to God, has any degree of permanence.

The Geeta tends to concentrate on the ultimate motives for actions, rather than on the issues inherent in the choice of one action rather than another. Hence there is a measure of ‘relativity’ in terms of deciding whether to act in one way rather than another. Presumably, in practical terms Hindus would find constrained by the requirements of the ‘caste’ to which they belonged and hence one might argue that to some extent Ethical Principles would be normative, conditioned by the requirements and limitations of the immediate social group. There is no general comment in the Geeta of actions that are specifically approved and other actions being prohibited.

This is not quite the same in ‘Buddhism’, where there are certain ‘prohibitions’ although these are expressed in a fairly general way. The Noble Eight-fold Path is the guide enunciated by the historical Buddha to enable human beings to reduce, and then eliminate ‘suffering’ in their lives and to escape from the cycle of birth and rebirth.
Of the eight elements to the Buddha’s Path, three are specifically concerned with the way in which human beings should behave in their day-today lives.
These are the injunctions to adopt ‘Right Speech’, Right Conduct’ and ‘Right Livelihood’.

‘Right Speech’ is the requirement to abstain from such activities as telling lies about people and engage in slanderous talk. Generally, it is the requirement not to speak unkindly about others. However, the principle of Right speech also entails not to engage in ‘idle chatter’, simply chatting about things in a thoughtless and casual manner!!

‘Right Conduct’ relates to the principle of not killing other living things and also of not stealing anything. It is often extended by the Buddhists to the more general principle of caring for all living things and having a mindful awareness of the existence of other life.

Right Livelihood is the principle, that lay Buddhists should earn their living by a method, which does not entail doing any harm to other living things.

Quite apart from the Noble Eightfold Path, Buddhism also emphasises general ethical behaviour in terms of exhibiting kindness and compassion towards all living things.

Mystical Elements in World Faiths:-

In many, but not all, world faiths one can identify an orthodox strand of doctrine and teaching and also a perhaps less orthodox element, which might be referred to as ‘mystical’.
The term ‘mysticism’ is certainly very difficult to define in a precise and all-inclusive manner. The most usual definition of mysticism involves a tradition or religious path whose aim is a union of the individual soul or ‘self’ with the divine. Mystical Experience is also usually described, by those who are able to do so, as involving feelings of great bliss and happiness and also a sense of overwhelming inner peace and harmony.

The role of the ‘teacher’ in mystical training is regarded as very important. Gaining mystical understanding is not regarded as simply acquiring a measure of doctrinal knowledge. Someone who has acquired at least that same degree of understanding and spiritual development can only authenticate mystical understanding.
There is the assumption in many mystical traditions that the teacher passes on the understanding to the pupil, who, on becoming a teacher, also transmits this understanding. In this way there is a chain of transmission and within some religions it is often a pertinent question to ask a religious teacher the identity of their teachers.

Within ‘Sufism’, the teacher is often known as a ‘Sheikh’, while in ‘Hinduism’ the term ‘Guru’ is normally used.
Within Hinduism, even when the pupil has left his or her Guru to lead an independent life, contact is still maintained with the Guru. Pupils will return to visit their Gurus regularly, partly to receive teaching, but also to care for them if they are elderly. The Guru is regarded with great esteem, being perhaps even closer than a parent is to a religious mystic. Mystical traditions, such as ‘yoga’ are usually learned from a Guru or adept.

There is a reasonable degree of commonality concerning the range of techniques used within mystical traditions. A common method used involves the use of the ‘Mantram’, or holy syllable, which repeated over and over again. The steady repetition has perhaps a similar effect to breathing meditation, in that it helps to calm the mind in preparation for other forms of meditation. The use of the Mantram is widespread, in Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Sufism. Sometimes the Mantram will be name of god; in other faiths, it may be spiritual word or phrase of a different kind.

Asceticism has been traditionally associated with mystical practice. The assumption here is that a comfortable lifestyle, which caters for worldly needs, is not necessarily compatible with gaining spiritual insights. Among Hindu ascetics, living off a very frugal diet is a fairly normal practice, as is the adoption of long periods of meditation practice. Many mystics will live either in a monastic setting, or else will have a very simple dwelling in an isolated, peaceful location. In India, many holy men lead a more or less permanently itinerant life, perhaps only living in one place for a short time during inclement weather.

Although one of the principle features of religions is often considered a belief in a deity or deities, there is arguably a more general characteristic of a religious belief system.
This is that, it is a belief system in which, individuals have a sense of the Universe and of their place within it. In other words, their perception of their own lives is not limited to their immediate existence, but rather looks out to a broader world and to the life forms, which inhabit it. They also look out to a universe which is currently unknown, but which engenders a feeling of wonderment. Perhaps also there is a sense of trying to explain the universe to oneself and this creates the motivation to look at things from a religious perspective.

Certainly, the Faiths described herein, all seek to look beyond the immediate existence of human beings to wider horizons.

‘Taoism’ has no deity and yet is infused with a love of and admiration for the broad, empty expanse of Nature. Taoist devotees lived in isolated places, leading lives of meditation and tranquillity. Taoist paintings are often characterised by a sense of space. They typically contain images of high mountain ranges, pine forests, fast-flowing streams and noticeably often a single monk meditating or travelling within this inspiring wilderness. Often the painting has a large expanse of the sky or of forest, as if the artist is creating a contrast between the tiny solitary human figure and the vastness of the universe!

In ‘Buddhist’ meditation, one of the main aims is to calm the mind and then to ease thoughts from the mind, leaving it empty. One of the characteristics of the mind is that it is continually filled with fluctuating thoughts, coming and going, disturbing the potential tranquillity of the mind. Meditation seeks to help the individual to allow thoughts to come into the mind, but then also to leave the mind and not to remain as the focus of attention.
The emptiness and silence of the ‘mind’ is regarded as a very positive element in Buddhist practice.

Although Buddhism appears to concentrate on the individual, in the sense that it focuses on the problem of suffering and the strategies which may be employed in eliminating that suffering, it also addresses the nature of ‘existence’ in a broader universe. Buddhism encourages the individual to try to understand the nature of all existence and, in particular, the characteristics of existence.
Thus, all existence is seen as being impermanent. This impermanence is seen as applying not only to the lives of individuals, but also to the broader animate and inanimate material in the universe. Thus, trees, mountains, lakes, this planet, the Sun and indeed galaxies and the whole universe are seen as being ultimately ‘impermanent’.
The Buddhist is thus encouraged to look beyond his or her own small-scale existence. Following on from the concept of ‘impermanence’ is that of ‘suffering’, or ‘unsatisfactoriness’ to use a typical Buddhist word.

We know that the energy of our star, the Sun, is certain to expire one day. In other words, it is impermanent. What is more, that impermanence is unsatisfactory. It would be ‘better’ in many ways, if the Sun continued shining forever, and gave future generations of human beings, and future life on earth, a ‘guaranteed’ existence. However, this is not to be. If human beings continue as a species, our ‘rational’ minds tell us that one day the earth will begin to cool and will not be able to sustain life. This is the unsatisfactory nature of the universe. Things do not go on unchanged forever.
The Buddhist is encouraged to look at the impermanent and unsatisfactory nature of the world and to accept it in the way that it is. Nothing can be done to alter the basic rules of existence; however, we can alter our ‘attitude’ towards them.
We can come to terms with them in a variety of ways.

It does not matter into which culture we are born; there are certain inevitable characteristics of life and the universe with which we must come to terms. Life is created and later ceases to exist. Living things ultimately malfunction and then die. The young grow old and lose their youth. We reflect on the ‘purpose’ of life. We consider how best we should ‘live’ out our relatively short span of existence. We wonder how we should behave towards other people and we should interact with our environment. These are some of the great issues of existence.

They are ultimately ‘religious’ questions and the faiths discussed herein have tried to respond to them in different ways.
We can only marvel at the resolve of human beings through the ages to reflect on these issues and never to abandon the quest of trying to comprehend our place in this universe.
‘CONFUCIANISM’:-

The term Confucianism is derived from the name of Confucius, a Chinese Sage, philosopher and teacher, who lived approximately 500 years before Christ; his actual name being ‘K’ung Fu-Tzu, and could be translated as ‘Master K’ung’.

To summarise, Confucianism is an ethical and spiritual teaching, about how human beings should relate to each other. Confucius applied his ethical theories to principles of government. Confucian texts became the basis of study for the Chinese civil service. Well-known texts include the ‘I Ching’, the ‘Analects’ and the ‘Doctrine of the Mean’. Confucius educated people of all social classes. He advocated human beings trying to live in harmony with the environment. Confucianism places great emphasis on the solidarity and cohesion of society. Respect for ancestors is an established component of Confucius practice.

‘TAOISM’:-

Taoism is one of the traditional religions of China. It began as a mystical religious system, but as it became more populist over the centuries, there was a transition to a system involving more ritual centred on local temples. Nevertheless, the fundamental mystical character of the faith has not been extinguished. Taoism as a distinct philosophical and religious system owes much to the writings of Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu around six to four hundred years before Christ.
The central text of Taoism is the ‘Tao Te Ching’, and is often composed of rather brief, succinct sayings and comments, and some people have suggested that it is more likely to be a compilation of the work of several people, rather than that of one person. Another possibility is that the work is derived from philosophical commentaries that were passed on by word of mouth and eventually written down, perhaps by someone named Lao Tzu.
A second well-known Taoist work is known as The Book of Chuang Tzu. Its style too suggests it might also be a compilation.
Taoism is fundamentally related to the nature of the ‘Tao’. This is a mystical, spiritual concept, which is used in two different but related ways. It is used to describe the spiritual force, which pervades the universe and influences everything and everyone within it. Second, it is used to refer to a spiritual discipline or ‘way’ by which an individual person may understand the nature of the Tao, and indeed, become absorbed in it.
The Tao is claimed to be beyond the understanding of the ‘rational’ mind and to be comprehended only through experience. In other words, although an individual may follow a path of mystical training and understand the Tao, it is regarded as extremely difficult to describe that experience within the framework of logical, scientific language.

The original concept of Taoism appears to have been that it was associated with a peaceful, tranquil lifestyle, with people living either in solitude or in quiet monastic environment. It is also associated with living in a natural setting, in pine forests and mountains, and this is often reflected in Taoist art.
Although this tradition continued and has continued to some extent to the present day, by about the first century, there had developed a tendency for more ritual within Taoism. It had somehow become associated with longevity, a belief of supposed long life. This was a deviation in purpose from the original philosophical and spiritual bases of Taoism. Its teachings and style of religious practice were similar to Buddhism to some extent; for example, the practice of ‘meditation’ as a means to spiritual advancement and also the use of breathing exercises as a means to quieten and still the mind.
An important concept within Taoism is that of ‘Chih’, or ‘intuitive knowledge, an ability to let go of the rational, analytical mind and attune him/her to inner, intuitive understanding.
Taoism has also inspired a great deal of painting, which has a characteristic and recognisable form. Those are typified by the presence of mountains, pine trees, streams and very peaceful settings. They may show a sage sitting by a hut, in the act of meditation, or perhaps wandering alone in the mountains. Taoist art is also characterised by the use of empty spaces. Such space may be thought of as metaphor for the process of emptying the mind of rational thought.

Belief system:-
Taoism is, in its original form, a mystical religion which seeks to enable the individual to comprehend the spiritual force, or Tao, which is perceived as the creative influence behind the entire universe.

Organisation:-
In terms of everyday practice, Taoism incorporates a range of religious activities, including the use of rituals and festivals, meditation and breathing exercises and the use of slow and disciplined systems of exercise. Individual people will often select a personal deity, who is a person who when living appeared to lead an exemplary life and to provide an example and an inspiration to the present generation.

SUMMARY:-

Taoism is a mystical religious system, which originated in China. The main originator of Taoism is normally reputed to be Lao Tzu. The principle text of Taoism is the Tao Te Ching.The Tao may be thought of as the spiritual force or energy, which pervades the universe and affects everything within it. Taoism is often associated with a tranquil lifestyle and people living in isolated natural settings.
‘Wu-wei’ or ‘non-activity’ is the art of acting in a practical situation, while at the same time adopting a relaxed approach.
‘Yin and yang’ represent the opposite tendencies in existence; ‘Yin’ is seen as a more passive energy and ‘yang as the more active energy.
Taoism does not possess a firm set of religious doctrines.
Taoism is not ‘theistic’ in the sense of having a god.
Taoists tend to attach great importance to the qualities of sensitivity towards one’s fellow human beings; moderation in the way in which one lives; and humility in one’s attitude to others.


“SHINTO”:-

Shinto is the original religion of Japan before the advent of Buddhism. It is not a revealed faith, but appears to have emerged from a complex interaction of devotion to Nature, the Worship of Ancestors, and the view that a sense of the Spiritual permeates the entire world. Originally this religious perspective was known as ‘Kami no Michi’ which translates approximately, as ‘The Way of the Gods’. Later it became known as Shinto.

Summary:-

Shinto is the original, indigenous religion of Japan. Shinto means ‘The Way of the Gods’. The two faiths of Shinto and Buddhism have tended to coexist harmoniously. Shinto involves a complex interaction between devotion to nature, worship of ancestors and spiritual elements in both people and the natural world. ‘Kami’ or ‘Spirits’ are believed to be present in natural objects, people and mythological characters. The most significant ‘Kami’ is Amaterasu, the Goddess of the Sun. Kami are worshipped at shrines. Purity and Cleanliness are strong elements in the Shinto way of life.


‘JUDAISM’:-

*Judaism is mono-theistic
*It asserts that one God created everything in the universe
*Jews believe that, as the creation of God, everything in the world is fundamentally good
*The mystical tradition in Judaism is known as the ‘Kabbalah’
*The maintenance of the ‘Sabbath’ is regarded as one of the most important elements in Judaism
*The festival of ‘Yom Kippur’ is a day of atonement for sins
*The ‘Bar Mitzvah’ for boys and the ‘Bat Mitzvah’ for girls is a rite of passage indicating the transition to adulthood
*Jews believe fundamentally that God rewards those who carry out good and virtuous deeds and punishes those who act unethically
*Jews believe that at some unspecified time to come, the ‘Messiah’ will act as a focus for a re-created Israel
*The festival of ‘Pesach’, or ‘Passover’, acts as a remembrance of the delivery of the Jewish people out of the servitude in Egypt.
*’Rosh Hashanah’ is a celebration of New Year and of the act of creation of the world.
*’Yom ha-sho’ah’ is a remembrance day for those millions of people who died in the Holocaust.
*the ‘Shema’ is arguably the most significant of Jewish Prayers and devout Jews repeat it twice each day
*Tefillin are leather boxes containing religious texts, which Jewish men may wear on their upper arm and forehead during prayers
*Jewish men may also wear a prayer shawl during prayers
*In the context of Judaism the Diaspora refers to the dispersal and migration of Jews around the world, often, but not exclusively, because of persecution
*The ‘Mezuzah’ contains spiritual texts and is usually attached to the outside door architrave of a house
*The ‘Ark’ is the container in the synagogue where the ‘Torah’ scrolls are kept.


‘CHRISTIANITY’:-

*Christianity is a monotheistic religion, with Christians believing that there is one God
*According to Christians, Jesus Christ is the Son of God
*He was born as an ordinary man in order to help people recognise the Truth of God
*He was crucified, but Christians believe that, having died, he was resurrected from the dead
*Jesus died in order to forgive and atone for the sins of human beings
*Christians believe that God can exist as three different entities: Father, Son and Holy Ghost
*These three forms of God are known as the Trinity
*The Holy Scripture of the Christians is the Bible, which comprises the Old and New Testaments, the last providing an account of the life of Jesus
*Christians believe that those who have faith in the message of Jesus Christ will, after death, attain everlasting life
*Within Christianity there are different ‘Churches’ or traditions
*The Roman Catholic Church accepts the authority of the Pope, whose judgements are regarded as completely accurate
*Protestant Churches evolved from the dispute with Roman Catholicism in the sixteenth century
*The Apostles’ Creed and the Nicene Creed are succinct statements of Christian belief and doctrine
*The Church of England is the ‘established’ Church in England
*In 1987 the General Synod of the Church of England accepted that women could be ordained as priests.


‘ISLAM’:-

Islam began as a religion and developed in Arabia in the early seventh century CE. Its development was particularly associated with two cities, Mecca and Yathrib, the latter later known as Medina.

Summary-

*The prophet Muhammad received a series of spiritual revelations from God, which form the basis of Islamic teaching
*Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE
*Muhammad married Khadija when 25 years old
*Muhammad experienced his first religious revelation when he was about 40
*The subsequent series of revelations were enshrined in the Qur’an, which is the holy book of Muslims
*It was made clear by Muhammad that he was not the originator of the revelations, but that he was a vehicle for the transmission of God’s message
*As a result of some persecution of Muhammad and his followers in Mecca, plans were made for a migration to Yathrib (Medina)
*The migration, known as the ‘Hijra’ was completed in 622 CE
* The Islamic calendar is dated from this event
*Conflict with Mecca continued, but the people of Mecca surrendered to Muhammad in 630 CE
*Muhammad died in 632 CE
*On the death of Muhammad, Abu Bakr was appointed as ‘caliph’ to lead the Islamic community
*Some Muslims disputed this succession, and felt that ‘Ali’, the Son-in-law of Muhammad, should have been the first ‘caliph’
*Muslims regard the Qur’an as being the full and complete revelation of God to human beings
*The Qur’an contains 114 chapters
*Some devout Muslims memorise and learn to recite the entire Qur’an
*The Five Pillars are the five main duties that Muslims are expected to fulfil. These are the Profession of Faith, or ‘Shahada’; ritual prayer, or ‘Salat’; the giving of alms, or ‘Zakat’; fasting during ‘RAMADAN’; and the ‘Hajj’, or pilgrimage to Mecca
*The Profession of Faith is:” There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the messenger of God”
*The Shahada emphasises the monotheism of Islam
*Muslims should pray five times a day while facing in the direction of the Mecca
*Prayer should be preceded by ritual washing
*Muslims are expected to donate as Zakat two and a half percent of their income to charitable causes
*Muslims are expected to fast during the month of Ramadan, taking no food or water between sunrise and sunset
* The conclusion of Ramadan is celebrated by the festival of ‘Eid-ul-Fitr
*Muslims are expected to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives
*At Mecca, pilgrims visit the Grand Mosque and walk around the ‘Kaaba’ seven times
*The mystical tradition in Islam is known as ‘Sufism’
*The role of the ‘Sheikh,’ or spiritual teacher, is part of the tradition of Sufism
*The ‘Sunnis’ and ‘Shi’ites’ are two different historical groupings within Islam.



‘BAHA’ISM’:-

The Faith of Bahaism evolved originally from another religion distinct from but related to Islam, during the last century.
‘Bahaism’ developed out of the religious teaching of Syyad Ali Muhammad. Bahaism is monotheistic. Bahais suggest that all major faiths of the world share certain basic commonalities. All major faiths are regarded as an expression of the same divine spirit. There is a strong emphasis upon the sharing of basic human qualities among all people. The equality of all human beings is stressed. Bahais have strongly advocated a movement for peace around the world.
There is no more a single leader of the faith, but an elected body called ‘The House of Justice’.


‘HINDUISM’:-

‘Hinduism’ is the ancient religion of India. Although it has spread to a limited extent outside the Indian sub-continent, and has also been carried by Hindu families as migrants to most parts of the world, it still remains a distinctively Indian phenomenon. It is not a revealed religion, in the sense that a single person outlined its belief system. Rather, it is more accurate to see it as a process of accretion and evolution.

While Hinduism has many different gods and goddesses, it may also quite reasonably be viewed as a monotheistic religion, in the sense of the belief in an all-encompassing spiritual force in the universe.
The faith possesses a strong mystical element, and has perhaps a wider range of doctrines and devotional practices than any other religion. This diversity makes it difficult to summarise Hinduism. However, it is perhaps this very diversity, coupled with a flexibility that has enabled Hinduism to survive for between three and four millennia, even during periods when India has been ruled by external countries.
The origins of Hinduism can be traced back to the religion of the Aryan invaders of India in the second millennium BCE. These migrating people, the Aryans quickly became established as the ruling authority. They had fast moving chariots and were a fairly warlike people. Their characteristic feature was that within their society existed an influential group of Priests who recited hymns to the gods and performed the appropriate sacrifices. These priests were known as ‘Brahmins’, and the collection of hymns they used was termed the ‘Rig-Veda’.
Originally, the Rig-Veda was passed on orally from generation to generation of Brahmins, but eventually it was written down in Sanskrit, and exists today as one of the oldest Scriptures. The Brahmin social class attained considerable power and authority in ancient India, and this has to some extent continued into modern India.
Many Brahmins led very devout lives being attached to temples or living as recluses in the forest. Others, however, led secular lives, working in Administration or in the service of the ruler.
The Brahmins were at the top of the social hierarchy and below them in the social system were three other social strata, or ‘Varnas’. These were, in order of status, the ‘Kshatriyas’, the ‘Vaishyas’ and the ‘Shoodras’.
The Kshatriyas were originally the warrior caste, whose function it was to defend the kingdom.
The Vaishyas were the trades people, merchants, farmers and artisans in metals. Their participation in commerce ensured that successful traders could potentially become very wealthy.
These first three social castes were all considered true Aryans and were termed the ‘twice-born’ (‘Dvija’). This signified that, in addition to their natural birth, they underwent an ‘initiation’ in puberty when a sacred thread was draped about their shoulders (the ‘Yajnyo-paveeta’).
The fourth social grouping, the Shoodras, was not twice born and was essentially low-status peasants and serfs. There role was to support the members of the other three classes. In addition, as non-Aryans, they were not allowed to hear the recitation of the Vedas.

Outside the four main social classes were the ‘untouchables’ or ‘outcastes’. Normally this group carried out jobs that were regarded as ritually polluting for the higher classes. They would often be required to live outside the village boundaries, in order that the other four social classes would not have to come into contact with them.

The ‘Rig-Veda’ contains over 1000 hymns and evolved during the period between about 1500 to 1000 years BCE. There are other Vedic texts too, associated with Rig-Veda, namely Yajur-Veda, Atharvana-Veda and Saama-Veda. (In fact, there is no definite period known as to when those were evolved; therefore those are often termed as being ‘Anaadi’, beginning less).

The recitation of the Vedic hymns and the performance by the Brahmins of the appropriate sacrifices enabled the Aryans to seek the assistance of the gods in their daily lives.
The Gods of the Rig-Veda included Indra, who was the god of wars and storms; Agni, the god of fire, who was important in the temple sacrifices; Varuna, the rain-god and creator; Savitar, the Sun god.
There are supplementary texts at the end of the Vedas termed the ‘Brahmanas’ and the ‘Upanishads’. The former are lengthy texts and contain, among other things, instructions for the conduction of religious ceremonies.
The ‘Upanishads’ date from about 600 years BCE onwards and are mystical texts written by Hindu sages. They speak of the ideal of the reclusive, ascetic, meditative life and of the individual who seeks to unite the human soul with that of the self-pervading spiritual force of the universe, the Brahman.
It was also during the Upanishadic period that the doctrine of ‘reincarnation’ developed, along with the notion that it was in principle possible for the individual soul to escape from the wheel of reincarnation and attain ‘Moksha’ or spiritual release.
From about 100 BCE onwards, a school of Hindu philosophy called ‘Vedanta’ developed. The principle texts of Vedanta were the ‘Brahma-sutras’ and the Upanishads. Vedanta is to this day one of the principle sources of inspiration for modern philosophical Hinduism.
Arguably Vedanta’s most famous exponent and advocate was the philosopher and mystic called ‘Shankaracharya’, who lived very approximately from 789-830 CE. Shankaracharya was born in southern India and argued that salvation for the individual could be best attained through Knowledge (‘Jnyana’).
The philosophical system, which he founded, is often known as ‘non-dualism’ or ‘Advaita’, because it proposes that the human soul and the divine soul or Brahman is essentially the same. Brahman, the all-pervading power of the universe, is argued to be the only ultimate reality.
As a practical method, Shankaracharya advised religious aspirants to engage in meditation, through which they would enable the individual soul to become one with Brahman, and hence gain Salvation.
From approximately medieval times in India, there was an increasing movement away fro the rather philosophical system of Shankaracharya, to religious practices involving devotion to a more personal God. Raamanuja, who lived from 1050-1137 CE, was an important representative of this so-called ‘Bhakti’ or ‘devotional’ school. Raamanuja did not demur from the essentials of the system of non-duality, but suggested that there were some differences between the substance of the individual soul and that of Brahman. Hence the notion of the individual human being worshipping an ‘immanent’ God became possible. Under such a system, the salvation of the individual depended upon the level of devotion demonstrated by the devotee and on the Grace of God. This particular system of thought was something special, and so it is termed as ‘Vishishta advait’ (qualified non-dualism of Raamanujacharya).
There were many other schools of thought, however, within the broad area of Hinduism. In the thirteenth century, for instance, Maddhvacharya argued for the philosophy of ‘dualism’ (‘Dvaita’), which suggested that the human soul and the divine soul were entirely separate.

During the last few centuries, new movements and tendencies have developed in Hinduism, often partly because of the influence of ‘other’ nations and peoples, during, for example, the Mogul dynasties and the British rule of India.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) was very much influenced by the rationalism of the British and had less regard for some of the more esoteric practices and traditions of Hinduism. He was, for example, very much against the worship of images of the Hindu Gods and he mounted a very successful campaign against the practice of ‘Sati’, or the self-immolation of widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands. In 1828 he founded an organisation called the ‘Brahmo Samaj’ which was devoted in part to the systematic study of religion.

In 1875, Madam Blavatsky founded the ‘Theosophical Society’ in the United States and later moved to India. This society did a great deal to publicise Hinduism beyond the shores of India and to some extent make its principles available to Westerners, rather than purely for the Hindus.

Other influential Hindus of the modern era include Ramakrishna (Parama-Hamsa), a Bengali saint and mystic who argued for the essential unity of all religions. One of His disciples, Swami Vivekananda, attended the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893 and besides bringing Hinduism to the attention of the West once more, he advocated a synthesis of Western and Hindu thought and philosophy.

Of all modern Hindus, M.K.Gandhi is arguably the most famous. The Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore called Gandhi ‘Mahatma’, or great soul, a name which remained with Gandhi during his lifetime and afterwards. He was a deeply devoted Hindu who tried to apply the teachings of the ‘Bhagavad-Gita’ in his everyday life and in politics. In his famous political protests, he consistently applied the principles of non-violence, which made him famous. He was a lifelong advocate of vegetarianism.

Simultaneously, there appeared on the Indian National screen, staunch Hindu leaders, like Keshav Baliram Hedgewar, Sri Golvalkar Guruji, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and the like, who spent their entire lives for the Hindu cause. Organisations like the ‘Rashtriya Svayamsevak Sangh’ (RSS), the ‘Vishva Hindu Parishad’ and so on made an indelible mark on the Indian social and political life.

Belief Systems:-

In Hinduism, religious beliefs and practice are inextricably linked with the social and cultural systems of India. Ritual and tradition play a very significant part in Indian life and affect many of the stages of individual existence.
The life of the Hindu was considered to fall ideally into four main stages or ‘ashrams’.
The first was when at puberty the Hindu boy was invested with the ‘Yajnyopaveeta’, or sacred thread. This ceremony, which was called ‘Upanayana’, or second birth, marked the transition from childhood to that of a religious student. The boy became a ‘Brahmacharin’, or student of the Vedas, and was placed under the supervision of a Guru, who would introduce him to the teachings of the Vedas. The sacred thread was a loop made of white cotton and was placed over the left shoulder and under the right armpit. From then on, it was supposed to remain with the young man for life.
The Upanayana ceremony was regarded as having deep significance and at it was chanted a holy ‘Mantra’ from the Rig Veda, called the ‘Gayatri Mantra’ and is still recited by the devout Hindus today. Although the sacred thread ceremony was largely for boys, girls were also sometimes initiated.

The second ashram is that of the family stage, or ‘grahastha’. Having studied under his Guru for several years, the young man becomes married and assumes family responsibilities. This stage continues throughout the middle age of the man, while his and his wife’s children grow and eventually get married themselves. At about this time the man leaves the family home and breaks most ties with his family. He becomes a recluse in a remote area, lives in a small hut, and meditates. This is the ‘Vanaprastha’ stage.

Finally, the by now elderly man leaves his simple home and becomes a wandering mendicant or ‘Sanyasin’. From now on, he will visit holy places and make pilgrimages. He will beg for alms and lead this wandering life until he dies.

By no means all men led or lead this pattern of life. It is regarded as a form of ‘ideal type’ of life to which one might aspire, but which in reality may not take place for many people. For many, the family stage may continue for the remainder of life, with the man spending short periods in a monastery or on pilgrimages to holy places.
Equally well, there is a long tradition in India of young men becoming itinerant monks or ‘sadhus’ and spending their whole life in this way. Although many aspects of this traditional patterning of life are oriented towards the male gender, some women also adopt the wandering holy life.

As in most societies, it is probably true to say that in India there is every combination of lifestyle, and way of structuring the life of the individual. The ‘ashrams’ however, have the function of embedding the notions of the religious student, the family person and the religious recluse within the concept of how one might ‘ideally’ conduct one’s life.

Among all Hindu Scriptures, the ‘Upanishads’ have arguably had the greatest influence upon the mystical elements in Hinduism. The word ‘Upanishad’ means ‘sitting close alongside’. It reflects the notion that the mystical teaching of the Upanishads was transmitted typically from Guru to student in a close, personal teaching situation.
The Upanishads are the concluding section of the Vedas, and deal not with the procedures of ceremonies, but with the mystical awareness of the Divine. The authors of the Upanishads are unknown, but it is a reasonable assumption that they were wandering religious mystics who wished to transmit their own religious experiences. This experience was not based on a strict, regimented study of the scriptures, but on meditation and a direct contemplation of God.

There are 108 Upanishads in existence, and far more may have existed previously but been lost. Each of the Upanishads is different in form and style, but there are a number of recurring themes. The principle theme is the relationship between Brahman, the Divine spiritual force of the universe, and the soul of the individual human being. Brahman exists in the human soul and if only human beings can recognise that presence and understand the significance of this, then they will no longer be subject to the eternal round of birth and death. Each Upanishad emphasises a different element of this broad theme.

The ‘Katha Upanishad’ describes the entire universe as coming from Brahman. Brahman cannot be seen or touched, but exists in every soul and the presence can be revealed through the process of meditation. The purpose of meditation is to calm the senses so that they are not disturbed by changes in the environment, no matter how severe.
Second, meditation seeks to develop a calm and tranquil mind, uncluttered by disturbing thoughts. The attainment of such psychological state is termed ‘Yoga’. The ultimate purpose of ‘Yoga’ is to attain an understanding of the Brahman existing in the soul, a situation which is described as ‘the real’ or ‘true self’.
In addition to this ‘true self’, the individual exists in the phenomenal world of everyday events. This is seen as an impermanent world, in contrast to the eternal soul united with Brahman.

In the ‘Isha Upanishad’, the everyday life of the world is described again as being fundamentally imperfect. It is very different from the knowledge, which can be attained through the process of meditation. The Isha Upanishad stresses that where one is involved in the world, it is important to act but not to become attached to the fruits of the actions. One should act in a moral and ethical manner but should not wish for any particular outcome, especially one that would benefit oneself. In this way, one becomes detached from the world, even though one acts within it. One has no desires for any particular outcome.
This is one way, argues the Isha Upanishad, in which a human being can attain union with Brahman and hence release from the round of birth and death.

The ‘Chhandogya Upanishad’ speaks of the impermanence of the empirical world. We realise in an intellectual sense that life must end, but we often do not let that knowledge affect the way in which we live our everyday lives. We continue to seek wealth and possessions knowing that ultimately we will leave them.
This Upanishad argues that the only way to gain true happiness is to seek to know Brahman.

The ‘Brihadaranyaka Upanishad’ repeats the theme that it is very difficult to gain liberation from rebirth and yet the way to achieve this is to understand that the human soul and Brahman are one.

The messages of the ‘Kaivalya Upanishad’ and the ‘Svetasvatara Upanishad’ are very similar. They provide practical techniques for knowing Brahman. One should have confidence in one’s Guru to provide the correct guidance and teaching. The aspirant should then locate a quiet and peaceful place in which to meditate upon Brahman. One should sit in the posture of a ‘Yogi’ and try to calm the mind and the senses.
A devotion to such meditative practices will encourage the individual to relinquish desires for material things and to see that the soul united with Brahman is immortal.


The concept of ‘Salvation’ was central to the discussions that took place in the Upanishads and it was during this period that the notion of ‘Karma’ started to develop.
‘Karma’ is a rather general word that can signify a number of related concepts. It may mean the work, which the human beings carry out, the actions they perform or the way in which they respond in terms of behaviour to other human beings.

The notion of Karma is inextricably linked with Hindu Ethics and with Salvation. The central idea of Karma is that if human beings act un-ethically, they cannot escape the consequences of their actions. The unethical actions will be certain to have undesirable consequences for those human beings in the future.
There is, according to the doctrine, no escaping from the consequences of karma. There is a clear, logical link between the unethical actions and the undesirable results.
One might feel that this doctrine suggests that there is little purpose in making an effort in life, since one, is in a sense a victim of one’s past unsatisfactory actions.

(‘Taaray Meray Karma, TO Teraa Kya Upakaar?)!!!

Nevertheless, it is considered that one should still strive to behave morally, since this will gradually reduce karma associated with the human soul. Eventually this will result in the elimination of all karma and the individual soul will no longer be reborn and will achieve Salvation.

Unless Karma can be gradually reduced, the human soul will continue to be reborn repeatedly. This process of transmigration or continual rebirth is sometimes referred to as ‘Samsara’. The Hindu assumes that a diligent attempt to behave morally will eventually result in the dissolution of karma and the soul will achieve Salvation or release from ‘Samsara’. The release from transmigration is often referred to as ‘Moksha’.

Hinduism has evolved a number of different strategies for trying to achieve Salvation, and perhaps the best known of these is ‘Yoga’.
‘Hatha Yoga’ has become very popular in the West because of the variety of postures incorporated in the discipline and its use as a form of physical exercise and relaxation. However, there is much more to the study and practice of Yoga than the postures, or ‘Asanas’.
The word Yoga is derived from the same root as the word ‘yoke’, and the latter word suggests the joining together of the individual soul and the universal soul of Brahman.
Although the word Yoga is generally used, particularly in the West, to refer to Yoga postures, it is actually one of the major historical philosophical traditions of Hinduism. There are numerous texts and writings on Yoga, although arguably the definitive source is the ‘Yoga-sutras’ written by Patanjali, in about the first century CE.

The discipline of Yoga consists of a wide variety of practices. Students of Yoga are expected to behave morally and to conform to the traditions of non-violence, of telling the truth and of generosity; of abstaining from sexual behaviour and of not taking the possessions of others.
Second, they are expected to practice the range of ‘asanas’, and the exercises which result in the control of the breath (‘Praanayam’).
Finally, they should practice calming the mind through meditation (‘Dhyana’), which will lead, according to Yoga adepts, to the state of ‘Samadhi’ involving total peace and union of the human soul with the universal soul.
There is a great deal of reliable observational evidence that Indian Yogis have developed unusual powers through their spiritual disciplines. This, however, is NOT really the true purpose of Yoga, which is centrally concerned with the attainment of Salvation and release from the cycle of Samsara.

One of the best-known and widely read Scriptures of Hinduism is the ‘Bhagavad-Gita’. This is a relatively short book of 18 chapters, which is part of the long Hindu Epic, the ‘Mahabharata’. It is difficult to date the origin of the Bhagavad-Gita, but it was probably created in about 3000 BCE.
At the opening of the Gita, two great armies face each other across the battlefield. Arjuna is the leader of one of the armies and he commands his charioteer to drive him out between the armies so that he can survey them. When he does so, he is aghast that there are so many relatives and family members facing each other. Arjuna becomes utterly despondent and does not really want to fight.
However, Arjuna’s charioteer is none other than Krishna and this situation in which Arjuna finds himself provides a medium for Krishna to deliver an analysis of the nature of life and death and the dilemmas in which human beings find themselves.
Krishna says to Arjuna that he should lift himself psychologically and not be downcast. Krishna starts by arguing that the ‘soul’ cannot be killed. The human ‘body’ may die or be killed, but the soul lives on forever. Krishna is thus suggesting, that there exists the material world which has a finite end, but that there is also the world of the soul which is not limited in this way. Arjuna is thus advised to ‘fight’, for if he does not fight, he will lose his honour.
It is a debatable question whether the dilemma of the Bhagavad-Gita Gita refers to a real battle or whether the battle is merely a metaphor for the human condition and the moral battles that humans must ‘fight’ throughout their lives. Whatever the historical truth, this situation provides a context within which Krishna can discuss the spiritual nature of humanity.
Krishna then embarks on one of the principle messages of the Gita. This is that people should engage with the world and do their work and duty, yet not become attached to the possible consequences of that work. If one works because one desires a certain outcome, then one’s equanimity is disturbed and one cannot work with peace of mind. Human beings can be very easily attracted to the material world and to possessions. This, argues Krishna, only brings unhappiness. If one becomes too attached to the self, and to the desires to satisfy the self, this ultimately brings unhappiness. The true spiritual way is to abandon attachment to the senses, and to concentrate on trying to achieve a state of equanimity and peace, which is undisturbed by attraction to the material world.
The ‘true Yogi’, argues Krishna, always tries to benefit the rest of humanity; acts in an unselfish manner in order to try to do good. Equally, the true yogi dedicates all actions to God and attempts to act in a manner, which would be pleasing to God.
The religious person tries to strike a balance between extremes in all things and does not act out of a motive of selfishness.
The Yogi tries to avoid all preoccupation with the self and with trying to achieve something because it will provide the individual with a sense of self-satisfaction. The entire purpose of Karma-Yoga or of un-selfish action is to act in such a manner that the result will benefit others.

ORGANISATION:-
Religious practice in Hinduism may, on the one hand, be highly organised but, on the other, it may be much devolved to the level of the individual practitioner. There are large temples with priests administering and officiating, and there are many individual holy men, who interpret the scriptures and tradition in their own way, and develop and teach their own variant of religious practice.
It is also worth noting that the family home is a very significant place of worship and religious practice, and many people may visit the temple only intermittently.

Most families will have a shrine within the home. This may be on a shelf on the wall or set in a niche in a corner. It could also be a rather grander affair set up on a table. There would typically be small statues of Gods or Goddesses, such as Krishna, Radha or Ganesh. Colourful paintings of deities or religious scenes might also be present. There may be some holy verses such as Gayatri Mantra and the whole would be decorated in a very ornate manner with tinsel, gold paint or whatever else could be used. In the family home, the shrine may be used to keep photographs of deceased relatives on display and regular prayers will be said to them. When family members come into the home they may walk up to the shrine and say a few short prayers, and similarly just as they are leaving for home. Family members may also emulate the common practice in the temple, of leaving items of fruit or sweets as an offering before the statues of the gods.

In a Hindu temple, there will usually be several statues of gods and goddesses, depending, to some extent, on the size of the temple. Within the temple, there will usually be several smaller shrines set into the wall and the main shrine at the (usually) western end of the temple. The temple is regarded as the home of the deity and the latter is treated in many ways like a human being. In the early morning, the statue of the deity is washed, dressed and offerings of fruit and flowers are placed before the statue. The temple priest will say prayers and chant hymns in a ceremony normally described by the general term ‘PUJA’.

Temple priests are trained in the Vedas and in the hymns and religious ceremonies and are mainly concerned with the administration of the temple and the performance of the necessary religious functions.
The Guru, who may not be attached to a conventional temple, however, takes the role of the spiritual teacher. It is more likely that the Guru will have established an ‘Ashram’ or monastery where people may go to receive practical spiritual guidance or instruction in meditation, or Yoga.
Many temples also function as community centres. People attend them as a social centre, as well as a place of worship. Much religious devotion and ceremony takes place in the home, but people will also attend the temple for congregational worship and to receive ‘Darshan’ or grace from the deity.
In general, it is probably reasonable to argue that Hinduism does not have the same degree of uniform organisation as many religions. Yet, by way of contrast, the diversity of the system adds an enormous richness to Hindu practice.


SUMMARY:-

*The origins of Hinduism can be traced back to the religion of the Aryan invaders of India in the second millennium BCE
*In ancient India there originated a system of social stratification known as the ‘caste system’.
*There were four main classes known as the Brahmins or priests; Kshatriyas or warriors; Vaishyas or trades people; and Shoodras or workers.
* There were also people outside the caste system as ‘untouchables’ or ‘outcastes’
* Elements of the caste system persist to this day
* One of the earliest scriptures of the Aryans was the‘Rig Veda’.
* Other important Hindu texts are the ‘Upanishads’, which date from about 600 BCE
* The word ‘Upanishad’ approximately ‘sitting close alongside’ and reflects the role of the Guru in passing on spiritual teachings
* The main theme of the ‘Upanishads’ is the relationship between the Universal soul, Brahman, and the souls of individual human beings
* On one level, Hinduism can be seen as monotheistic, with Brahman being the all-pervading Power in the Universe.
* The apparent ‘polytheism’ of Hinduism can be seen as each God being a reflection of That Universal Spirit.
* A number of modern Hindu thinkers such as Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi have drawn upon both Western and Hindu ideas.
* In Classical Hinduism, the life of a Hindu was seen as falling into four main stages or ‘Ashrams’ : the student of the Vedas; taking responsibility of a family; living as a religious recluse; and finally living as a wandering mendicant.
* The practice of ‘meditation’ is very important in Hinduism.
* Meditation is seen as helping to calm the mind, eliminate desires and hence attain union with Brahman
* The doctrine of Karma is that if people behave unethically, they cannot avoid the consequences of their actions.
* The word ‘Yoga’ is related to the word ‘yoke’ and suggests the joining together of the individual soul with Brahman.
* Hatha Yoga is the practice of special postures, but there are also other forms of Yoga.
* Yoga may also involve Meditation, breathing exercises, dietary requirements and Ethical Conduct.
* One of the most famous Hindu Scriptures is the Bhagavad-Gita
* It provides a discussion of the nature of human existence and the dilemmas in which human beings find themselves.
* One of the basic messages of the Gita is that people should act in the world and try to do their duty, but not become attached to the possible results of their actions
* According to the Gita, the True Yogi should abandon attachment to the senses.
* A ‘Mantra’ is a holy verse, which is repeated over and over again, as a form of meditation
* Many Hindu families keep a shrine in the house, at which they pray and carry out devotions.



‘BUDDISM’

‘Buddhism’ is a faith, a worldview, a way of living and a psychology. More particularly, it is a way of living, which seeks to minimize and ultimately eliminate the kinds of thoughts and actions that cause human beings to suffer. Buddhism tends to rest on the argument, that much suffering for human beings results from the nature of our reaction to events; rather than necessarily the nature of those events. It prescribes a set of strategies for dealing with the events and circumstances of life, in such a way that the consequences cause us less suffering.

Siddhrtha Gautama, who was born in 563 BCE near Lumbini in what is now Nepal, developed these practical strategies. Siddhartha’s father Suddhodana was the King of the Sakya Kingdom in southern region of Nepal,

Siddhartha was brought up in affluent circumstances. One day, outside his palace, he reputedly encountered first an old man, then a sick man, then a corpse and finally a wandering ascetic. This caused him to reflect upon the ‘nature of existence’. He eventually left the palace and became a wandering ascetic.
Later, after a long period of meditation, he became spiritually enlightened, and was known as the ‘Buddha’, or ‘enlightened one’.
He travelled to the Deer Park, just outside present day Benaras, and delivered his first sermon, expounding the basics of his philosophical system. He ordained the first Monks and founded the Sangha, or community of Buddhists.
The ‘Vinaya’ is the Code of Conduct that governs the lifestyle of Buddhist Monks and Nuns. The monks and nuns depend on alms for food and have very few possessions.
A’Vihara’ is a Buddhist monastery.
Emperor Ashoka became ruler of most India in 268 BCE and converted to Buddhism.

There are two main doctrinal divisions in Buddhism: ‘Theravada Buddhism’ is found in South-East Asia, and ‘Mahayana Buddhism’ in Tibet, China and Japan.

Zen Buddhism is a particular type of the Mahayana tradition, which is found in Japan.
The religious texts of Theravada tradition are written in ‘Pali’.

The Buddha advocated a ‘Middle-Way’ as the route to spiritual enlightenment. This provided a balance between the two extremes of ‘asceticism’ and ‘materialism’.
The essence of the Buddha’s teaching is contained in the ‘Four Noble Truths’ and the ‘Noble Eight-fold Path’.

The Buddha argued that although ‘suffering’ exists, it is primarily caused by human reactions to the world and may be gradually reduced.
The Noble Eightfold Path is the gradual strategy advocated for reducing suffering.
‘Meditation’ is one of the main processes used to attain ‘nirvana’ or ‘enlightenment’.
‘Anapanasati’ is the type of Meditation involved in focussing the attention on the breath.
‘Vipassana’ or ‘insight meditation’ is the process of focussing on the thoughts that come and go in the mind.

The three central concepts in Buddhism are ‘Impermanence’, ‘Suffering’ and ‘No-Self’.
Impermanence encourages Buddhists to reflect on the temporary nature of existence. ‘Suffering’ encourages Buddhists to reflect upon the unsatisfactory nature of existence. Whereas, ‘No-Self’ encourages Buddhists, to reflect upon the lack of a permanent ‘self,’ in human beings.

‘Ch’an Buddhism was, according to tradition, brought to China by the Indian Monk Bodhidharma. Ch’an Buddhism makes extensive use of meditation.
In Japan, it evolved into ‘Zen’. In ‘Zen’, enlightenment is known as ‘Satori’. There are two main ‘schools’ of Zen: ‘Rinzai Zen’ and ‘Soto Zen’.



‘JAINISM’:-

‘Jainism’ is one of the oldest religious traditions in India and is of approximately the same antiquity as Buddhism. The person normally regarded as the initiator of Jainism is the Sage Vardhamana, or as he is normally known, Mahavira. The later name may be translated as ‘great hero’, and the dates of Mahavira’s life are approximately 599-527 BCE. He was born near the present day city of Patna in the Indian state of Bihar.

A central feature of Jain culture is that both monks and nuns, and also to a certain extent, laypeople, make a virtue from asceticism. The purpose of this respect for the ascetic way of life is partly to draw a distinction between the ‘Jain’ way of life and that of a more materialistic existence.
In addition, however, asceticism is seen as the primary means of helping to ensure that the individual can escape from the cycle of birth and death and hence attain Salvation.
An ascetic, spiritual lifestyle is thus perceived as the principle method of removing the effects of Karma.

Jains perceive the universe as being very much determined by the law of cause and effect. In other words, from a philosophical point of view, each event in the universe has a cause and this operates on both a material and a spiritual level.
If a person acts inappropriately, with anger or greed, for example, then their soul will be affected and will accrue Karma. The effect of this karmic accumulation is that the soul cannot escape from the consequence of rebirth. The only way to eliminate the karma is for the individual to live a life of asceticism.
The life of asceticism should include a number of other characteristics such as ‘non-violence’, ‘meditation’, ‘vegetarianism’ and periodic ‘fasting’.

Non-violence, or ‘ahimsa’, remains a very significant feature of Jain life.

Summary:-

The founder of Jainism was Mahavira. At about the age of 30 he became a Sadhu, or wandering religious mendicant. Jains know him as ‘JINA’, or conqueror, that is someone who has overcome the cycle of birth and rebirth. Mahavira is thought to have ended his life through voluntary starvation. On Mahavira’s death, there developed two main doctrinal divisions among Jains. The ‘Digamberas’ felt that, as ascetics, they should not wear any clothes. The ‘Svetamberas’, however wore simple white robes.
The spiritual goal of Jains is Moksha, or release from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Jains place great emphasis on ‘asceticism’. They believe that this is a means of eliminating the effects of Karma upon their lives.
Ahimsa, or non-violence, is a central feature of the Jain approach to life. Some Jain monks gently brush the path ahead of them as they walk, in order to remove small insects that they might otherwise walk on and kill. Others wear a gauze facemask to prevent any small living things entering their mouths and being killed.
Jains try to avoid occupations such as farming, where they might (even involuntarily) be involved, in the killing of living things. Jain monks will often typically filter their drinking water to avoid the consumption of any tiny creatures in the water.
The life of Jain monks and nuns is one of extreme simplicity, asceticism and meditation.


‘THE RELIGION OF THE PARSIS’:-

The religion of the Parsis is a form of Zoroastrianism, which was the original religion of Iran, before the arrival of Islam. Some Zoroastrians migrated to India, settled in the region of Bombay and gradually adapted to some extent to the indigenous Hindu culture.
Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) who lived from approximately 630 to 550 BCE founded Zoroastrianism. Zoroaster was a monotheist, who worshipped a single deity, Ahura Mazda.
The Zoroastrian scriptures are known as the ‘Avesta’. Zoroaster believed that there were moral choices to be made in the world and that people should act ethically and virtuously.
‘Ahura Mazda’ had given human beings a free will and Zoroaster wanted people to exercise that free will to act morally.
In the eighth century, a group of Zoroastrians emigrated from Persia to the state of Gujarat in India. The people of Gujarat knew them as ‘Parsis’ or Persians. When Bombay expanded in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many Parsis moved there and became involved in business and commerce.
Parsis have temples in which a sacred flame is maintained, as a symbol of truth of God. Fire is also seen as a metaphor for the spirit of life within human beings.
Education has always been seen as very important to Parsis.
The Parsis have a very characteristic method of disposal of the dead, in the so-called ‘Towers of Silence’. These are specially constructed buildings where the dead are exposed to the sky, and are consumed by vultures. Parsis view this method as clean and efficient, as the bodies are consumed very rapidly. They also see it as a means of recycling organic matter in the environment.



‘SIKHISM’:-

Guru Nanak who was born in 1469 at Talwandi founded the Sikh religion in Punjab in India. Accompanied by a Muslim named Mardana, Guru Nanak travelled on pilgrimages to a number of holy cities. After many years of travelling, Guru Nanak settled at Kartarpur, where he assumed the life of a peasant farmer. He constructed a ‘Dharmasala’, a building for the emerging Sikh community. There he instituted a ‘Langar, or communal meal, which symbolised the equality of people. He died in 1539.
After Guru Nanak, there were a further nine Sikh Gurus who extended the foundation of the faith.
Guru Angad developed the ‘Gurumukhi’ Script, in which the holy scriptures of the Sikhs are written.
Guru Amardas became Guru in 1552 and stressed the need for Sikhs to both lead a religious life and to earn a living.
Guru Ramdas founded the city of Amritsar in Punjab, which is the holy city of the Sikhs.
Guru Arjan was the next Sikh Guru and he started the construction of The Golden Temple at Amritsar. He also initiated the compilation of the ‘Adi Granth’, the Sikh Holy Scriptures.
Guru Hargobind was the son of Guru Arjan, and did much to establish the military tradition of the Sikhs.
The next Gurus were Har Rai and Har Kishan, then Teg Bahadur, who fought against the Muslim rulers of India and was eventually executed at Delhi.
Gobind Singh, the son of Guru Teg Bahadur, became Sikh Guru in 1676.
Guru Gobind Singh determined that there would be no human Sikh Guru after him, but that the Scriptures, henceforth known as the Guru Granth Sahib, would be the Guru. He also founded the ‘Khalsa’ or community of ‘initiated’ Sikhs.
The ‘Khalsa’ Sikh should not cut hair, should wear a comb to keep the hair tidy, should wear a steel bangle on the right wrist, should carry a sword and should wear a pair of shorts as underclothes.
The ultimate spiritual reality in Sikhism is God as Guru, who is at least partly revealed through the scriptures of the Guru Granth Sahib. ‘Nam Simaran’ (‘Naamah-smarana’) is a form of Meditation, which means remembering and repeating God’s Name continuously. ‘Sahaj’ is the process whereby the individual Sikh merges his or her being with God.
A ’Gurudwara’ is a Sikh temple or building used for congregational worship and communal gatherings. Within the ‘Gurudwara’, a copy of the ‘Guru Grantha Sahib’ is kept under a canopy in the main prayer hall.
The ‘Granthi’ is the name of the person who is the custodian of the ‘Gurudwara’. The Gurudwara also has a kitchen and dining room where the ‘Langar’ is served.


CONCLUSION:
The Future of Religion {-

One of the most interesting developments in world faiths, which has happened during the last 60 years, dating approximately from the end of world war II, has been the enormous diffusion of different religions across the world. Most of this happened because of post-war migration and resettlement, but in addition, there has the effect of television and latterly the Internet, which has brought a much wider consciousness of different faiths around the world
.
Many countries are now multi-cultural, multi-ethnic, and multi-faith societies. People nowadays have a choice of faith, which was in effect lacking in previous generations. We are now aware of competing ‘Value Systems’ and religious practices, with which only perhaps a minority of people were previously familiar. The cultures associated with other faiths have also had an impact upon society.

The doctrine of ‘non-violence’ for instance, which is particularly characteristic of the religions within the Indian subcontinent, has influenced many a societies. Among those, besides Hindus, the Jains and Buddhists have been the principle exponents.
The idea of non-violence has also influenced, to some extent, the movement of ‘vegetarianism’.

It seems a reasonable hypothesis that as the nature of society changes, so too will the nature of religious practice. Religion is part of society and there will almost inevitably be a dynamic interaction between the two. People are beginning to exercise their ‘individualism’ in terms of belief systems and religions in much the same way, in which they exercise it in other areas of life. Mass communications and the Internet have made people much more aware of other cultures. In addition, greatly enhanced travel opportunities have enabled people to travel on ‘package tours’ to areas of the globe that until recently were regarded as ‘remote’. Moreover, those are often areas where travellers learn about other faiths and belief systems. When they return to their home country, they sometimes follow up the interest.

People may be attracted to religious sects for a variety of reasons, including the ‘originality’ of their doctrines, the apparently more informal nature of their organisation and perhaps the charismatic nature of the leadership.

There is also a sustained interest in what we might term ‘secular’ religions or traditions, which while having a ‘spiritual’ element, are generally practiced within a largely secular environment, and without an overtly religious approach. The practice of ‘meditation’ can be carried out in a purely ‘secular’ manner, almost as a form of psychotherapy. It may help to calm the mind and to reduce stress, without being seen as a part of any faith or belief system.

Similarly, the interest in ‘Yoga’ is very widespread and can be purely on the level of treating it as a form of physical exercise, which helps to maintain the muscles in a supple and relaxed state. Accompanied by yogic breathing exercises (‘pranayam’), it too is a form of meditation and may be beneficial in reducing stress and calming the mind.

There are thus no signs that human beings do not continue to be impelled by the ‘spiritual’ quest, yet in contemporary society they have far more means at their disposal of trying to resolve the great religious questions to their personal satisfaction.
There are no longer great social pressures that they should subscribe to a single view of religion. They are able to select from a wide variety of different traditions, each eager for their attention.

It may well be that no matter how ‘materialistic’ the world becomes, at certain points in people’s lives they will still turn ‘within’ themselves, searching for answers to questions that have been part of human condition for millennia.

There may be more and more organisations offering answers, but the great spiritual questions of ‘Humanity’ remain.


London 24 October 2007 Jai Sairam